Elderly Abuse Essay Example for Free

Elderly Abuse Essay Lifespan stage and counseling-related problems. As part of being a human being, we are born and we grow old as time passes and then we die as life comes to an end. Part of human development is the stage of late adulthood. From the book â€Å"Human Behavior in the Social Environment,† by Jose B. Ashford and Craig Winston LeCroy, the years from age sixty until death are considered late adulthood. At this stage of life, there are many challenges that the elderly people face. Aging comes with the loss of being independent, age discrimination and diminished physical ability. During the aging process, there are also biological, emotional, intellectual, social and spiritual changes. Beside two other big challenges such as poverty and ageism, one of the biggest problems that elderly people face is elderly abuse when they are at the point in their lives where they are dependent of someone to provide supports for them. According to the American Psychological Association, an estimated 4 million older Americans are victims of physical, psychological or other forms of abuse and neglect. Many people who hear â€Å"elder abuse and neglect† think about older people who live in nursing homes or older relatives who live all alone and don’t have visitors. Being part of the counseling program, it is important for counselors to know that majority of incidents of elder abuse do not happen in nursing homes or other residential settings, but rather takes place at their own home with their own spouses, children, siblings or relatives. Forms of elderly abuse to be aware of are physical abuse, verbal/psychological/emotional abuse, sexual abuse, financial exploitation and neglect. Elder abuse is often a very complex problem that is caused by many reasons such as cultural issues, stress, society and other factors. Elder abuse affects both older men and women from all socioeconomic groups, cultures, race s and ethnicities. Bio-psycho-social developmental themes Bio-psycho-social developmental themes affecting late adulthood is crucial in  understanding elderly abuse. During this developmental stage, there are lots of changes in the biological systems among this age group. Problems related to elderly physical health include gradual loss of bone mass, joints are more restricted, variety of foot problems, and arthritis which is known to affect many elderly people. Power and speed of muscle decrease as well as strength and endurance. There is a decline in hearing and vision impairment. Skin gets thin and dryer which make the skin more easily bruised and injured. Maintaining independence and health is very important in the success of someone who is in this stage of development. With the biology of aging, the elderly become physically frail which cause others to care for them sometimes resulting in mistreatment and abuse. Forms of elderly abuse that affect the individuals biologically are physical abuse and sexual abuse. Physical abuse ranges from getting slapped, shoved, beatings, kicking, pinching, burning, and getting restrained with ropes or chains. Giving inappropriate medications is also part of physical abuse. Sexual abuse among this age group ranges from inappropriate touching, forcing sexual contact, rape, sodomy and coerced nudity. It is the least reported type of elderly abuse. Sexual abuse also includes taking pictures and forcing an individual to look at pornography. These two forms of elder abuse usually cause physical problems such as signs of body bruises, bruises around genital areas, unexplained sexually transmitted diseases, untreated wounds, sprains, broken glasses and bloody underclothing. There are changes in the psychological system of this developmental stage that contributed to elderly abuse and mistreatment. Alzheimer’s disease is the most common form of dementia for aging individuals. Alzheimer is literally having memory loss which is common among individuals that are in their sixty and above. Cognitive impairment increases with age and dementia is usually one of the biggest problems that often refer to irreversible cognitive impairment that affects an individual’s memory, personality, and functioning. According to the Alzheimer’s Association, cognitive impairment can sometimes be discovered early in individuals. When individuals are not able to recall names, forgetting words, misplacing things, having memory loss, getting lost in own street or neighbor, not knowing or forgetting chore needs to be done, they may possibly be showing Alzheimer’s disease or other forms of dementia. Behavioral and emotional changes occur in people with Alzheimer’s disease. As the disease gets worsen, those with the disease will experience symptoms that include delusions, agitation, aggression and uncooperative with care. Alzheimer is a commonly known dementia disease in which there is no cure and it gets worse as it progresses. The risk of abuse increases in people with health issues such as dementia (Kohn and Verkoek-Oftedahl 2011). Verbal, emotional and psychological abuses are the common abuses that elderly individuals suffered from. Signs of emotional and psychological abuse are being upset, withdrawn, and unusual dementia-like behavior such as rocking and sucking. Name calling, intimidation, threatening, isolating the individual from families and friends are forms of verbal, emotional and psychological abuse. In late adulthood, the social dimension or support system becomes smaller. Majority of older adults have some family, while others do not. Family is the first line of support for older adults when they need care and assistance. Some older adults or elderly individuals often live with their children including grandchildren, while others live with their spouses. It is important to know that elderly abuse is often caused by family members and the least likely to be reported. For those that do not have family and are dependent for care, they are often live in adult residential homes or care facilities where they only people they interact with are the staffs within those settings. Elderly abuse is sometimes caused by individuals working at the care homes. Some individuals of this population experience loneliness and isolation. When an individual is isolated for no apparent reason, it is sometimes can be part of elderly abuse. Counseling Practice: Assess and Strategy Elderly abuse is often the result of certain societal attitudes that contribute to the violence and discrimination against older people. From the American Psychological Association, such factors that contribute to elderly abuse include the devaluation of and lack of respect for older adults and the society’s belief that what goes on in the home is a private â€Å"family matter.† When societal views regarding older people as insignificant, it results in failure to recognize the importance of assuring support, dignity and nonabusive life circumstances for every older individual. When people outside of the family observe or suspect abuse, they may fail to intervene because they believe that it is a family problem and is none of their  problems or they might be afraid that they are dealing with a private matter. Also, the feeling of shame and embarrassment might often make it difficult for older persons or even family members to report and reveal the abuse because they do n’t want others to know that such events are occurring in their families. Counselors need to take into consideration of certain cultural values, beliefs and traditions that influence the family dynamics and intergenerational relationships. These differences can make the situations difficult to distinguish from abuse or neglect. One big problem is older individuals from ethnic minorities or immigrants that do not speak English and have language barriers, financial or emotional dependence that prevent them from seeking or willingness to report abuse. It is important that anyone who works with older people in potentially abusive situations need to be sensitive to cultural differences and intervene accordingly as well as not to ignore signs of abuse. To prevent elderly abuse, counseling for behavioral or personal problems in the family can be helpful. Treating family members with substance abuse can prevent violence against aging adults in the households. In some cases, it may be a best interest to have the older individuals move to a different safer setting or having the older individuals live in nursing home if adult children are not equipped emotionally and physically to support and handle the responsibility of caring for an elderly person. When suspected of elderly abuse, counselors or any other related mental health professionals are mandated to report elderly abuse to adult protective services as required by laws. It is also important not let fear prevent you from reporting any suspicions of abuse taking place. It is important to know that someone’s life can be saved from further harms including death. People in their late adulthood deserve to be treated with respect and dignity. They are our parents, grandparents and love ones who deserve good care and love as they have reached the full stage of their lives. Cited Page Ashford, J. B., LeCroy, C. W., Lortie, K. L. (2010). Human behavior in the social environment: a multidimensional perspective (4th ed.). Australia: Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning. Elder Abuse and Neglect: In Search of Solutions. (n.d.). http://www.apa.org. Retrieved November 16, 2013, from http://www.apa.org/pi/aging/resources/guides/elder-abuse.aspx Kohn, R., Verhoek-Oftedahl, W. (2011). Caregiving and Elder Abuse. Medicine Health Rhode Island, 94(2), 47–49. OpenStax College. (2013, July 29). Challenges Facing the Elderly. Retrieved from the Connexions Web site: http://cnx.org/content/m42880/1.4/ Resources Two Current Book References Glicken, M. D. (2009). Evidence-based counseling and psychotherapy for an aging population. Amsterdam: Academic. This book is a practical guide for advanced students, social workers, clinicians or anyone in the mental field that work with elderly clients. It covers the most effective evidence-based practices for assessment and treatment of elderly clients. Each chapter of the book directly addresses different range of conditions and disorders that are the most common for the elderly population such as social isolation, elder abuse and neglect, depression, anxiety disorders, terminal illnesses, dementias and so forth. It also prepares readers for conditions that they will encounter in the real world even working with or interacting with the elderly population. Wilson, G. (2000). Understanding old age critical and global perspectives. London: Sage. This book is about understanding old age or the elderly population. It gives readers a wide range of issues and policies on ageing. It provides many theoretical perspectives on ageing in different societies, the trends involving aging adults and what roles should be taken by older people including those who interact with this population. The book explores migration, different health issues, pensions, the structure of family and institutional care as well as it also touches based on elderly abuse. This book is essential for students, nurses, social work, counselors and those who want further understanding of the older population in our society. Journal Article Thompson, H., Priest, R. (2005). Elder Abuse and Neglect: Considerations  for Mental Health Practitioners. Adultspan Journal, 4(2), 116-128. According to the authors, elder abused is largely an unrecognized problem in the United States and is often untreated. Elder abuse and neglect is so prevalence, that not all incidents are reported. By 2030, the elderly population of late adulthood will double and it is important for mental health practitioners to be aware of intervention, different strategies, consequences, laws and the risk factors that contributed to elder abuse when working with clients. The article addresses the different types of elderly abuse and states real life problems that mental health practitioners including counselors will encounter when working with the population. Educational Internet Website National Center on Elder Abuse (NCEA) www.ncea.aoa.gov The National Center on Elder Abuse or NCEA is directed by the U.S. Administration on Aging. According to the mission of The National Center on Elder Abuse, it is a resource for policy makers, social service and health care practitioners, the justice system, researchers, advocates, and families. The site has prevention strategies and different intervention partners that are good for different work fields such as for those working with older people in the social services, APS, Ombudsman and etc†¦ It provides many different practices that are utilized in different states throughout the United States. Local Referral Source Department of Health and Human Services, Ombudsman Program 7001 A East Parkway Sacramento, CA 95823 Telephone: (916) 875-2000 The Office of Ombudsman provide information, answer questions and resources to address issues. The Office of Ombudsman protects and defends a citizen’s rights.

Design Of Wastewater Treatment Plant Environmental Sciences Essay

Design Of Wastewater Treatment Plant Environmental Sciences Essay Industrial wastewater treatment covers the mechanisms and processes used to treat waters that have been contaminated in some way by industrial or commercial activities prior to its release into the environment or its re-use. It involves mainly three stages, called primary, secondary and tertiary treatment. Activated sludge process can be used to treat the wastewater produces from Oushadi Ayurvedic Pharmaceuticals. Contaminants include oils, particulate solids, materials having high concentrations of biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and suspended solids (SS). Primary treatment consists of temporarily holding the sewage ,where heavy solids can settle to the bottom while oil, grease and lighter solids float to the surface. The settled and floating materials are removed and the remaining liquid may be discharged or subjected to secondary treatment. One major problem faced by Oushadi was the complete removal of oil from wastewater and this posed a threat to the use of treated water for the ir boilers. Secondary treatment removes dissolved and suspended biological matter. Secondary treatment is typically performed by natural, water-borne micro-organisms in a managed habitat. Secondary treatment may require a separation process to remove the micro-organisms from the treated water prior to discharge or tertiary treatment. Tertiary treatment is sometimes defined as anything more than primary and secondary treatment. Comprising over 70% of the earths surface, water is undoubtedly the most precious natural resource that exists on our planet. Recycling of wastewater in industries is therefore a process, which is a necessity rather than a luxury. Wastewater treatment is the process of removing contaminants from wastewater. It includes physical, chemical, and biological processes to remove physical, chemical and biological contaminants. Its objective is to produce a waste stream (or treated effluent) and a solid waste or sludge suitable for discharge or reuse back into the environment. This material is often inadvertently contaminated with many toxic organic and inorganic compounds. Wastewater can cause contamination of ground water, lakes, streams and rivers. It wastes and decreases the amount of potable water available on earth, causes an imbalance in aquatic ecosystems and wastes the nutrients contained in wastewater by not recycling them. Many industries use large volumes of water in their manufa cturing operations. Because some of this water becomes contaminated, it requires treatment before discharge. Improvements in determining the effects of industrial waste discharges have led to the adoption of stringent environmental laws, which define the degree of treatment necessary to protect water quality. Discharge permits, issued under the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES), regulate the amount of pollutants that an industry can return to the water source. The permitted quantities are designed to ensure that other users of the water will have a source that meets their needs, whether these needs are for municipal water supply, industrial or agricultural uses, or fishing and recreation. Consideration is given to the feasibility of removing a pollutant, as well as the natural assimilative capacity of the receiving stream. This assimilative capacity varies with the type and amount of pollutant. Wastewater treatment plants are designed to convert liquid wastes into an acceptable final effluent and to dispose of solids removed or generated during the process. In most cases, treatment is required for both suspended and dissolved contaminants. Special processes are required for the removal of certain pollutants, such as phosphorus or heavy metals. Wastewater can be recycled for reuse in plant processes to reduce disposal requirements. This practice also reduces water consumption. Sahradaya College Of Engineering Technology, Kodakara 1 Design Of Wastewater Treatment Plant 1.1 POLLUTANTS IN WASTEWATER Organic Compounds The amount of organic material that can be discharged safely is defined by the effect of the material on the dissolved oxygen level in the water. Organisms in the water use the organic matter as a food source. In a biochemical reaction, dissolved oxygen is consumed as the end products of water and carbon dioxide are formed. Atmospheric oxygen can replenish the dissolved oxygen supply, but only at a slow rate. When the organic load causes oxygen consumption to exceed this resupply, thus dissolved oxygen level drops, leading to the death of fish and other aquatic life. Under extreme conditions, when the dissolved oxygen concentration reaches zero, the water may turn black and produce foul odours, such as the rotten egg smell of hydrogen sulphide. Organic compounds are normally measured as chemical oxygen demand (COD) or biochemical oxygen demand (BOD). Nutrients Nitrogen and phosphorus are essential to the growth of plants and other organisms. However, nitrogen compounds can have the same effect on a water source as carbon- containing organic compounds. Certain organisms use nitrogen as a food source and consume oxygen. Phosphorus is a concern because of algae blooms that occur in surface waters due to its presence. During the day, algae produce oxygen through photosynthesis, but at night they consume oxygen. Solids Solids discharged with a waste stream may settle immediately at the discharge point or may remain suspended in the water. Settled solids cover the bottom-dwelling organisms, causing disruptions in population and building a reservoir of oxygen-consuming materials. Suspended solids increase the turbidity of the water, thereby inhibiting light transmittance. Deprived of a light source, photosynthetic organisms die. Some solids can coat fish gills and cause suffocation. Sahradaya College Of Engineering Technology, Kodakara 2 Design Of Wastewater Treatment Plant Acids and Alkalies The natural buffering system of a water source is exhausted by the discharge of acids and alkalies. Aquatic life is affected by the wide swings in pH as well as the destruction of bicarbonate alkalinity levels. Metals Certain metals are toxic and affect industrial, agricultural, and municipal users of the water source. Metals can cause product quality problems for industrial users. Large quantities of discharged salts necessitate expensive removal by downstream industries using the receiving stream for boiler makeup water. The contaminants in wastewater are removed by physical, chemical and biological methods. The specific method are classified as physical unit operations, chemical unit processes and biological unit processes. 1.2 Unit Operations and Process in Wastewater Treatment TABLE 1.1 Operations and Process in Wastewater Treatment Contaminant Unit Operations/ Processes Classifications Suspended solids Screening Sedimentation Floatation Filtration Physical Biodegradable Organics Activated Sludge Trickling Filters Rotating Biological Contactors Biological Phosphorus Lime Coagulation Chemical Heavy Metal Chemical Precipitation Chemical Sahradaya College Of Engineering Technology, Kodakara 3 Design Of Wastewater Treatment Plant CHAPTER 2 WASTEWATER CHARACTERISTICS 2.1 WASTEWATER CHARACTERISTICS To design a treatment process properly, characterization of wastewater is perhaps the most critical step. Wastewater characteristics of importance in the design of a treatment process can be grouped into the following categories:  · Temperature  · pH  · Colour and Odour  · Carbonaceous substrates  · Nitrogen  · Phosphorous  · Chlorides  · Total and volatile suspended solids (TSS and VSS)  · Toxic metals and compounds  · Density  · Oil grease  · Alkalinity 2.1.1 Temperature: The temperature of wastewater is commonly higher than that of the local water supply, because of the addition of warm water from household activities. As the specific heat of water is much greater than that of air, the observed wastewater temperatures are higher than the local air temperatures during most of the year and are hotter only during the hottest summer months. Depending on the location and time of the year the effluent temperatures can either higher or lower than the corresponding influent values. 2.1.1.1 Effect of temperature The temperature of water is a very important parameter because of its effect on chemical reactions and reaction rates, aquatic life, and the suitability of the water for beneficial purposes. In addition, oxygen is less soluble in warm water than in cold water. The increases in rate of biochemical reactions that accompanies an increase in temperature, combined with the decrease in the quantity of oxygen present in surface waters, can often cause serious depletions in dissolved oxygen concentrations in summer months. Optimum temperatures for bacterial activity are in range from 25 to 35oC.Aerobic digestion and nitrification stops when the temperature rises to 50oC. When the temperature drops to about 15oC, methane producing bacteria become quite inactive and at about 5oC, the autotrophic nitrifying bacteria practically Sahradaya College Of Engineering Technology, Kodakara 4 Design Of Wastewater Treatment Plant cease functioning. At 2oC, even the chemo heterotrophic bacteria acting on carbonaceous material become essentially dormant. 2.1.2 pH: The hydrogen ion concentration is an important quantity parameter of both natural waters and wastewaters. The usual means of expressing the hydrogen ion concentration is as pH, which is defined as the negative logarithm of hydrogen ion concentration. The concentration range for the existence of most biological life is quite narrow and critical typically 6 to 9. Wastewater with a extreme concentration of hydrogen ion is difficult to treat by biological means, an if concentration is not altered before discharge, the wastewater effluent may alter the concentration in the natural waters. For treated effluents, discharged to the environment the allowed pH range usually varies from 6.5 to 8.5. The pH of fresh domestic waste water is slightly more than that of the water supply to the community. However, the onset of septic conditions may lower the pH while the presence of industrial wastes may produce extreme fluctuations. 2.1.3 ODOUR AND COLOUR: Fresh domestic waste water has slightly soapy and earthy odour and cloudy appearance depending upon its concentration, With the passage of time, the waste water becomes stale, darkening in colour with a pronounced colour due to microbial activity. 2.1.3.1 Odour: Odours are usually caused by gases produced by the decompositions of organic matter or by substances added to the waste water. Fresh wastewater has a distinctive, somewhat disagreeable odour which is less objectionable than the odour of wastewater which has undergone anaerobic decomposition. The most characteristic odour of stale or septic wastewater is hydrogen sulfide. Odours have been rated as the foremost concern of public relative to wastewater treatment facilities. Within the past few years, the control of odour has become major consideration in the design and operation of wastewater collection, treatment and disposal facilities, especially with respect to public acceptance of these facilities. Effect of Odours: The importance of odours at low concentrations in human terms is related primarily to psychological stress they produce rather than to the harm they do to the body. Offensive odours can cause poor appetite, lower water consumption, impair respiration, nausea and vomiting and mental perturbation. Some odorous compounds are toxic at elevated concentrations. Sahradaya College Of Engineering Technology, Kodakara 5 Design Of Wastewater Treatment Plant 2.1.3.2 Colour: Historically, the term condition was used along with composition and concentration was used to describe waste water. Conditions refer to the age of wastewater, which is determined qualitatively by its colour and odour. Fresh wastewater is usually a light brownish grey colour. However as the travel time in collection system increases, and more anaerobic conditions develop, the color of waste water changes sequentially from grey to dark grey and ultimately black . When the color of wastewater is black, the wastewater is described as septic . In most cases the grey , dark grey and black color of wastewater is due to formation of metallic sulphites which form as the sulphide produced under anaerobic conditions react with metals in the wastewater. 2.1.4 CARBONACEOUS CONSTITUENTS: Carbonaceous constituents are measured by BOD, COD or TOC analyses. While the BOD has been the common parameter to characterize carbonaceous material in wastewater, COD is becoming more common in most current comprehensive computer simulation design models. 2.1.4.1 Biochemical Oxygen demand: The BOD test gives a measure of the oxygen utilized by bacteria during the oxidation of organic material contained in a waste water sample. The test is based on the premise that all the biodegradable organic material contained in the wastewater sample will be oxidized to CO2 and H2O, using molecular of oxygen as the electron acceptor. Hence, it is a direct measurement of oxygen requirements and an indirect measure of biodegradable organic matter. 2.1.4.2 Chemical oxygen demand: The COD test is based on the principal that most organic compounds are oxidized to CO2 and H2O by strong oxidizing agents under acid conditions. The measurement represents the oxygen that would be needed for aerobic microbial oxidation, assuming that all organics are biodegradable. 2.1.4.3 Total Organic Carbon: The total carbon analyzer allows a total soluble carbon analysis to be made directly on an aqueous sample. In many cases TOC can be correlated with COD and occasionally with BOD values. Sahradaya College Of Engineering Technology, Kodakara 6 Design Of Wastewater Treatment Plant Table 2.1: Definition of Solids Found in Wastewater Test Description The residue remaining after a wastewater Total Solids (TS) Total Volatile Solids(TVS) sample has been evaporated and dried at a specified temperature (103-105oC). Those solids that can be volatilized and burned off when the TS are ignited (500 ±50 oC). oTotal Fixed Solids (TFS) The residue that remains after TS are ignited (500 ±50 C). Portion of the TS retained on a filter with a specified pore size, measured after being dried at a specified temperature (105oC). The Total Suspended Solids (TSS) Volatile Suspended Solids (VSS) Settle able Solids filter used most commonly for the determination of TSS is Whatman glass fiber filter which has a nominal pore size of about 1.58 µm. Those solids that can be volatilized and burned off when the TSS are ignited (500 ±50 oC). Suspended solids, expressed as mL/L, that will settle out of suspension with in a specified period of time. Sahradaya College Of Engineering Technology, Kodakara 7 Design Of Wastewater Treatment Plant CHAPTER 3 STAGES OF WASTEWATER TREATMENT 3.1 STAGES OF WASTEWATER TREATMENT 1) Preliminary Treatment: Removal of wastewater constituents such as rags, sticks, floatable grit and grease that may cause maintenance or operational problems with treatment operations, process and ancillary systems. 2) Primary treatment: Removal of a portion of suspended solids and organic matter from the wastewater. 3) Advanced Primary: Enhanced removal of suspended solids and organic matter from the wastewater typically accomplished by chemical addition to wastewater. 4) Secondary treatment : Removal of biodegradable organic matter (in solution or suspension) 5) Secondary with nutrient removal: Removal of biodegradable organics, suspended solids and nutrients. (N2, P or both N2 and P). 6) Tertiary treatment: Removal of residual suspended solids (after secondary treatment) usually by granular medium filtration or micro screens. Disinfection is also typically a part of tertiary treatment. Nutrient removal is often included in this definition. 7) Advanced Tertiary: Removal of dissolved and suspended materials remaining after normal biological treatment when required for various water reuse applications. 3.2TREATMENT PROCESS FLOWSHEET: Depending on the contaminants to be removed, an almost limitless number of process combinations can develop using the unit operations and process. The term flow sheet is used to describe particular combinations of unit operations and process used to achieve a specific treatment objective. Apart from the analysis of the technical feasibility of the individual treatment methods, the exact flow-sheets configuration will depend on factors such as (1) the needs of the of the clients needs, (2) the designers past experience, (3) regulatory agency policies on the application of specific treatment methods, (4) the availability of equipment suppliers, (5) what use can be made of existing facilities, (6) the availability of qualified operating personnel, (7) initial construction costs and (8) future operation and maintenance costs. Sahradaya College Of Engineering Technology, Kodakara 8 Design Of Wastewater Treatment Plant The Process Flow Sheet proposed in this project for the wastewater treatment is as shown below : Figure 3.1: Process Flow Sheet Table 3.1: LEVELS OF WASTEWATER TREATMENT TREATMENT LEVEL DESCRIPTION Removal of wastewater constituents Such as Preliminary rags,sticks, floatables,grit and grease that may cause maintenance or operational problems with the treatment operations. Primary Removal of apportion of the suspended solids and organic matters from wastewater. Enhanced removal of suspended solids and Advanced Primary organic matters from wastewater typically accomplished by chemical addition or filtration. Secondary Removal of biodegradable matters and suspended solids Secondary with Nutrient removal Removal of biodegradable organics and nutrients. Tertiary Removal of residual suspended solids usually by granular medium filtration or micro screen Sahradaya College Of Engineering Technology, Kodakara 9 Design Of Wastewater Treatment Plant CHAPTER 4 LITERATURE REVIEW 4.1 SCREENING The first unit operation generally encountered in wastewater is screening. A screen is a device with opening, generally of uniform size, that is used to retain solids found in the influent wastewater to the treatment plant. The principle role of screening is to remove coarse material from the flow stream that could damage subsequent process equipment, reduce overall treatment process reliability and effectiveness and contaminate waterways. Fine screens are sometimes used in place of or following coarse screens where greater removal of solids are required to protect process equipment and eliminate materials that may inhibit the beneficial reuse of bio-solids. All aspects of screening, removal, transport and disposal must be considered in the application of screening devices including 1. The degree of screening removal required, because of potential effects of downstream processes 2. Health and safety of operators as screenings contain pathogenic organism that attract insects 3. Odour potential 4. Requirements for handling transport and disposal 5. Disposal options Two general types of screens, coarse screens and fine screens are used in preliminary treatment of wastewater. Coarse screens have clear opening ranging from 6 -150mm, Fine screens have openings ranging less than 6mm. Micro screens will generally have screen opening less than 50 µ m, are used principally in removing fine solids from treated effluents. Bar rack for the removal of coarse solids. 4.2 GRIT REMOVAL Removal of grit from wastewater may be accomplished in grit chambers or by the centrifugal separation of solids. Grit chambers are designed to remove grit, consisting of sand, gravels, cinders or other heavy solid materials that have subsiding velocities of specific gravities substantially greater than those of the organic putrescible solids in wastewater. Grit chamber are most commonly located after the bar screen and before the primary sedimentation tanks. Sahradaya College Of Engineering Technology, Kodakara 10 Design Of Wastewater Treatment Plant Locating grit chamber ahead of wastewater pump when desirable, would involve placing them at considerable depth at added expense. It is therefore deem more economical to pump the wastewater, including the grit to grot chamber located at a convenient position ahead of the treatment plant units, recognising that pumps may require greater maintenance. 4.2.1 Why Grit is removed?  · Prevent wear on pumps  · Accumulation in clarifiers  · Accumulation in aeration tank  · Accumulation in digesters  · Clogging of sludge piping 4.2.2 TYPES OF GRIT CHAMBERS Grit chambers are provided to (1) Reduce formation of heavy deposits in pipelines, channels and conduits (2) reduce the frequency of digester cleaning caused by excessive accumulation of grit (3) Protect moving mechanical equipment from abrasion and accompanying abnormal wear. There are three general type of grit chamber: Horizontal flow either rectangular or square configuration; aerated or vortex type. The aeration type consists of a spiral flow aeration tank where the spiral velocity is induced and controlled by the tank dimension in and quantity if air supplied to the unit. The vortex type consists of cylindrical tank, in which the flow enter tangentially vortex flow pattern; centrifugal and gravitational forces causes the grit to separate. Design of grit chamber is commonly based on removal of grit particles having a specific gravity of 2.65 and wastewater temperature 15.5oC. However analysis of grit removal data indicates the specific gravity ranges from 1.3-2.7. Horizontal Flow Grit Chambers In the horizontal flow type the flow passes through the chamber in a horizontal direction and the straight line velocity of flow is controlled by the dimension of the unit, an effluent distribution gate and a weir at the effluent end. Rectangular and square Horizontal flow grit chambers have been used for many years. Sahradaya College Of Engineering Technology, Kodakara 11 Design Of Wastewater Treatment Plant Typical Design Information for Horizontal Flow Grit Chamber Table 4.1 Item Detention time Horizontal velocity Settling velocity for removal of .21mm material Settling velocity for removal of .15mm material SI Unit Range Typical s 45-90 60 m/s .25-.4 .3 m/min 1-1.3 1.15 m/min .6-.9 .75 % 30-40 36 % 25-50 30 Head loss in a control section as % depth in channel Added length allowance for inlet and outlet turbulence Horizontal- Velocity Grit Chambers: They are controlled by either a  · Parshall flume  · Proportional weir Parshall fume is used more widely due to less head loss than the weir. The flume and weir are also used to measure flow rates. In the chamber, a constant horizontal velocities is maintained by proper cross-sectional geometry of the chamber.  · Horizontal velocity must be adequate to keep the organic matter in suspension.  · Horizontal velocities should be sufficient so as to prevent scouring of settled grit along the bottom of the channel. Values of .23-.38m/s are common. 4.3 FLOW EQUALIZATION Process for water treatment works best with uniform conditions. Shock to the bioprocesses in the form of sudden change in the concentration of nutrients can upsets. If the concentrations or flow rates of the waste vary greatly, dosages for treatment must be constantly be readjusted. Flow equalization is a method used to overcome the operational problems caused by flow rate variation, to improve the performance of downstream process, and to reduce the size and cost of t downstream treatment facilities. Flow equalisation is damping of flow rate variations to achieve a constant or nearly constant flow rate and can be applied in a number of different situations depending on characteristics of collection system. There may be aeration both to keep the fluid from becoming anaerobic and smelly and to biodegrade some of the organic compound present. Sahradaya College Of Engineering Technology, Kodakara 12 Design Of Wastewater Treatment Plant The principle applications are for the equalisation of: 1. Dry weather flow to reduce the peak flow and loads. 2. Wet weather flow in sanitary collection systems experiencing inflow and infiltration. 3. Combined storm water and sanitary system flows. In the line arrangement all of flow passes through equalisation basin. This arrangement can be used to achieve considerable amount of concentration and limits its divert into equalisation basin. Although the pumping requirements are reduced in this arrangement, the amount of constituents concentration damping is considerably reduced. The principle benefits that are cited as derived from application of flow equalisation are: 1. Biological treatment is enhanced, because shock loadings are eliminated or minimised, inhibiting substances can be diluted and pH can be stabilised. 2. The effluent quality and thickening performance of secondary sediment tank following biological treatment is improved consistency in solid loading. 3. Effluent filtration surface area requirements are reduced, filtered performance is improved and more uniform filter back wash cycles are possible by lower hydraulic loading. 4. In chemical treatment, damping of mass loading improves chemical feed control and process reliability. 5. Often the rest of the plant designed with a smaller equipment( less capital investment) because of this improvement in performance. Disadvantage of flow equalisation include  · Relatively large land areas are required.  · Equalisation facilities may have to be covered for odour control near residential area.  · Additional operation and maintenance required  · Capital cost is increased. 4.4 PRIMARY SEDIMENTATION The objective of treatment by sedimentation is to remove readily settle able solids and floating materials and thus reduce the suspended solids content. Primary sedimentation is used as a preliminary step in the further processing of the waste water. Efficiently designed and operated primary sedimentation tanks should remove from 50-70% of the suspended solids and from 25-40% of the BOD. Sedimentation tanks have also been used as storm water retention tanks which are designed to provide a moderate detention period (10-30mins) for overflows from either combined sewers and storms sewers. The purpose of sedimentation is to remove a substantial portion of organic solids that otherwise would be discharged directly to the receiving waters. Sedimentation tanks have also been used to provide detention periods sufficient for effective disinfection of such overflows. Sahradaya College Of Engineering Technology, Kodakara 13 Design Of Wastewater Treatment Plant 4.4.1DESCRIPTION Almost all treatment plants are mechanically cleaned sedimentation tanks of standardized circular or rectangular design. The selection of the type of sedimentation unit for a given application is governed by the size of the installation, by rules and regulations of local control authorities, by local site conditions and by the experience and judgment of the engineer. Two or more tanks have to be provided so that the process may remain in operation when one tank is out of service for maintenance and repair work. RECTANGULAR TANKS Rectangular sedimentation tanks may use either chain and flight solids collectors or travelling bridge type collectors. The solids settling in the tank are scraped solids hoppers in small tanks and transfers troughs in large tanks. In every long unit two collection mechanisms can be used to scrape solids to collection points near the middle of the tank length. Where possible, it is desirable to locate solids pumping facilities close to the collection hoppers. 4.4.2 SEDIMENTATION TANK PERFORMANCE The efficiency of sedimentation basins with respect to removal of BOD and TSS is reduced by 1. Eddy currents formed by inertia of incoming fluid 2. Wind induced circulation cells formed in uncovered tanks 3. Thermal convection currents BOD AND TSS REMOVAL R= Where R expected removal efficiency t- detention time a, b empirical constants 4.4.3 DETENTION TIME The bulk of finely divided solids reaching primary sedimentation tanks is incompletely flocculated but is susceptible to flocculation. Flocculation is aided by eddying motion of the fluid within tanks and proceeds through the coalescence of fine particles at a rate that is a function of their concentration and of the natural ability of the particles to coalesce upon collision. Coalescence of a suspension of solids becomes more complete as time elapses, thus detention time is a consideration in the design of sedimentation tank. Normally primary sedimentation tanks are designed, to provide 1.5-2.5hrs of detention based on the average rate of waste water. Sahradaya College Of Engineering Technology, Kodakara 14 Design Of Wastewater Treatment Plant 4.4.4 SCOUR VELOCITY To avoid the resuspension or stirring of resuspended particles horizontal velocity through the tank should be kept considerably low. The following equation gives critical velocity. ( ) VH=[ ] Where VH Horizontal velocity that will just produce scour, LT-1 (m/s) K Constant that depends on type of material being scoured s Specific Gravit

Capital Punishment in the US

Capital Punishment in the US Katie Sawtelle Capital Punishment: Americas Blood Stained Hands In 2015, the most executions took place in China, Iran, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, and the United States of America (Death Penalty 2015). What a peculiarity it is to see the U.S. included in the list alongside undemocratic nations. America is the only westernized country that still continues to put the death penalty to use. Capital punishment should be abolished for it delivers inadequate legal representation and is discriminatory toward racial minorities. It is a fundamental right for a defendant in a capital case to be assigned a competent lawyer, yet, more often than not, court appointed public defenders often lack the skills and drive for effective representation. A common characteristic of those on death row is poverty. It is estimated that around 90% of inmates on death row could not afford to hire an adequate attorney (American Civil Liberties Union). Without a competent lawyer, a defendants case barely stands a chance. In the spring of 2014, Glenn Ford, an African-American man, was released from a Louisiana prison after spending thirty years on death row for a crime he did not commit (Bright). Ford could not afford an attorney in his capital case, so the court appointed him two lawyers for his representation. One of the lawyers was an oil and gas attorney who had never presented a case in front of a jury before. The second lawyer was a recent law school graduate that worked for an insurance firm. Despite the weak case presented against Ford, the all white jury sentenced him to death (Bright). It is not equal justice when the defendant receives inadequate representation just because of the amount of money he or she has. Appropriately put, those without the capital get the punishment (Von Drehle). Those accused of capital crimes rely on lawyers to protect their legal rights, investigate, and present evidence that will doubt their guilt. It is extremely difficult for a low-income defendant to navigate the legal justice system on their own. One major reason that innocent defendants have been placed on death row and executed is due to incompetent or inexperienced court-appointed lawyers; in extreme cases, some attorneys have been found asleep, intoxicated, or under the influence of drugs during trial proceedings (Bright). Some may argue that if court appointed lawyers were much better, then guilty people could be acquitted. That may be true, however, the more important issue regarding better court-appointed lawyers is that innocent people could be acquitted. Innocent people that were convicted and executed could have possibly lived out the rest of their lives if they had received better court-appointed legal defense. In some states, people sentenced to death may receive legal representation from pro-bono (free service for the public) lawyers or from public organizations. Most of the time, there is not enough pro-bono attorneys for all of the poor defendants facing death row. This could possibly result in the defendant obtaining an inept court-appointed lawyer. To receive a new trial, a defendant could file for post-conviction relief and state that their constitutional rights were violated, however, it is usually only possible for those who can afford lawyers. Some states provide lawyers for post-conviction relief, although the majority of the nation does not. Regardless of whether a defendants constitutional rights were violated at trial, they still may have to face execution. A number of people are sentenced to death not because they committed the most heinous crime, rather, the courts did not provide them with competent legal representation. Ruth Bader Ginsburg, a United States Supreme Court Ju stice has said, I have yet to see a death case, among the dozens coming to the Supreme Court on eve of execution petitions, in which the defendant was well represented at trial (Bright). The amount of money a defendant has in capital cases can be the difference between life and death; In present day America, it is better to be rich and guilty, than poor and innocent (Bright). The death penalty in the antebellum South (1815-1861) was a tool of white supremacy. The possibility of slave uprisings haunted slave owners, therefore, the death penalty was regularly enforced to resist slave opposition. (Von Drehle). In Virginia, during the antebellum era, it was a capital offense for a slave to administer medicine, for it could have been poison. Also, an old statute in Georgia stated that if a slave left a bruise on his master, he could receive capital punishment (Von Drehle). The late M. Watt Espy, a researcher that studied capital punishment, recorded around 15,000 executions in the United States dating from 1608 to 1972 (Von Drehle). Espys research and recordings reveal racial disparity in U.S. executions. His research suggests that in a significantly white America, more blacks than whites are executed. Whites were rarely put to death for crimes that involved African-American victims (Von Drehle). A study of the death penalty done by the University of Texas pro posed that Americas modern-day capital punishment system is an outgrowth of the racist legacy of slavery (qtd. in American Civil Liberties Union). Racial bias is still very much alive in the modern justice system of America It is far more likely for racial minorities (African-American and Latinos) to be placed on death row and be put to death than white people particularly if the victim is white. A recent Louisiana study conducted by Glenn Pierce (research scientist at Northeastern University) and Michael Radelet (Professor of Sociology at University of Colorado-Boulder) indicated that defendants with white victims were 97% more likely to receive death sentences than defendants with black victims (qtd. in American Civil Liberties Union). In the United States, blacks and whites are murder victims in nearly exact numbers, which is exceptionally high considering that 13% of the population is African-American. Between the years 1930 and 1996, around 4,200 prisoners were put to death in America; more than half of those prisoners were black (American Civil Liberties Union). Americas death row has always had a large population of African Americans and they are often killed for what are deemed less-than-capital offenses for whites, such as rape and burglary (American Civil Liberties Union). It has been asserted that racial discrimination and the death penalty are part of Americas past, nevertheless, since the reinstatement of the death penalty in the 1970s, around half of those on death row at any given time have been minorities. Florida Latinos are beginning to shift away from the death penalty. The state of Florida has one of the lowest bars for sentencing someone to death by not requiring a unanimous jury recommendation, and they lead the nation in death row inmates being released due to wrongful convictions (Cartagena). For these reasons, Floridas death penalty has been struck down as unconstitutional twice in 2016. Four Florida counties Miami-Dade, Hillsborough, Pinellas and Duval are among 16 counties nationwide that have each had five or more death sentences between 2010 and 2015 (Cartagena). All of these counties have been found to suffer from prosecutor misconduct, bad defense lawyers, wrongful convictions and racial bias (Cartagena). From 2010-2015, every inmate in Miami-Dade County who was sentenced to death, was black or Latino. Yet, studies argue that in most locations across America, minorities are responsible for less than half of homicides (Too Broken to Fix). The nations largest death row capacity resides in Los Angeles County, California and statisticians expect continued growth. In 2013, reports revealed that Los Angeles County was responsible for more death row prisoners than any other county in the United States, and it has ranked as one of the two most prolific counties in imposing new death sentences each year since (Too Broken To Fix). Between the years 2010 and 2015, Los Angeles County imposed 31 death sentences, which adds up to be the most death sentences enforced in any U.S. county during that period (Too Broken To Fix). Those 31 death sentences in L.A. show severe racial disparity in their sentences: approximately 94% of the 31 death sentences enforced were directed toward minority (Latino and African-American) defendants and even though African Americans commit fewer than one-third of all Los Angeles County homicides, they comprised 42% of those condemned to death in this period. 45% of the new death sentences were imposed on Latino defendants (Too Broken to Fix). Only two white defendants received the death penalty. Unsurprisingly, a 2014 study conducted in Southern California concluded that white jurors are more probable to inflict capital punishment when the defendant is Latino and poor than in cases where the defendant is white. Latino jurors presented no such bias (Too Broken to Fix). The amount of racial minorities sentenced and executed on death row continues to suggest that capital punishment and racial discrimination are indeed still a part of modern day America. Since the Supreme Court reinstatement of the death penalty in the mid-1970s, juries in Texas have to determine if the defendant poses a future risk to the public, before applying the death sentence. Most states have the jurors consider past behavior and crimes of the defendant, however, in Texas, juries are asked to predict the future (Vansickle). In essence, these jurors are asked to predict the unpredictable. Those who are pro-death penalty may argue that experts can determine future violence, however, if juries and experts could determine future danger, then there would not be any crime. Currently, in the state of Texas, there are around 240 men and women on death row that have been determined to pose a threat to society. The question of future dangerousness has not reduced the amount of death sentences, rather, testimony on the issue has often instead introduced racial bias into trials (Death Penalty Information Center). The U.S. Supreme Court recently heard arguments for the Texas death penalty case of Buck v. Davis. In July of 1995, the defendant, Duane Buck, shot and killed his ex-girlfriend and her friend (Vansickle). At the trial, Bucks lawyer initiated testimony from a psychologist that said Buck was dangerous and posed a threat to the public since he was African-American. In 1997, the jury found Buck guilty and sentenced him to death. Before his execution, the Supreme Court halted his case due to the racial bias that resulted in his death sentence. Buck is still awaiting his new sentencing. Many studies, including one conducted by Cornell University, propose that the race of the victim and defendant play a critical part in whether a person receives the death penalty (qtd. in Vansickle). Criminologists conducted a study used in Bucks appeal that analyzed racial disparity in Harris County, Texas the location where Buck was sentenced to death. The study resulted that from 1992 to 1999, Harris County prosecutors were three and a half times more likely to seek the death penalty against black defendants than white ones. Jurors were more than twice as likely to sentence blacks to death (Vansickle). Another study led by Jennifer Eberhardt, Professor of Psychology at Stanford University, established that in cases with a white victim and a defendant with stereotypical black features, the more probable the defendant would be sentenced to death (Eberhardt). These studies suggest that race plays a detrimental role in whether a defendant receives the death penalty. Race should never be a predictor of dangerousness or influence whether a person receives the death penalty, yet, it is the harsh reality in the land of the free. With the death penalty, someone will always end up on the short end of the stick; usually that person is either African-American or Latino. The U.S. should not put value on someones life based on their skin color, however, it is the current reality. Stephen Bright, Professor of Clinical Law at Yale Law School, argues that the only way for racial prejudice to no longer play a role in the decision of the death penalty is to completely remove capital punishment in the U.S.: With the long history of slavery, lynchings, convict leasing, segregation, racial oppression and now mass incarceration that has a much greater impact on racial minorities, surely states should eliminate any chance that racial prejudice might play a role. But there is only one way to do that: by eliminating the death penalty. (Bright) In the United States Constitution and pledge of allegiance, it promises equal justice for all. Yet, race and poverty continue to influence who will be condemned to death in the land of equal opportunity. Finality not justice, not liberty is the ultimate goal of the legal system in the United States. Capital punishment desensitizes society.. It teaches the American youth that society solves its problems with violence. It displays the absence of appreciation for life. And, as the equal justice giant, Martin Luther King Jr. once said, capital punishment is societys final statement that it will not forgive (qtd. in Bright). The United States should join 140 other nations in making final the directive: thou shalt not kill. Works Cited Bright, Stephen. Imposition of the death penalty upon the poor, racial minorities, the intellectually disabled and the mentally ill. New York University Law School, 2014. Web. 7 January 2017. Bright, Stephen. Race, Poverty, the Death Penalty, and the Responsibility of the Legal Profession. Seattle Journal for Social Justice 1.1 (2002): 12. Web. 7 January 2017. Bright, Stephen. The Failure to Achieve Fairness: Race and Poverty Continue to Influence Who Dies. Journal of Constitutional Law 11.1 (2008):16. Web. 7 January 2017. Cartagena, Juan. Latinos join call to end Floridas death penalty. Orlando Sentinel. Orlando Sentinel, 10 December 2016. Web. 7 January 2017. Death Penalty 2015. Amnesty International. 6 April 2016. Web. 7 January 2017. Death Penalty Information Center. Death Penalty Information Center, 2016. Web. 7 January 2017. Eberhardt, Jennifer. Looking Deathworthy. Psychological Science 17.5 (2006): 383-386. Web. 7 January 2017. The Case Against the Death Penalty. American Civil Liberties Union. 2012. Web. 7 January 2017. Too Broken to Fix. Fair Punishment. September 2016. Web. 7 January 2017. Vansickle, Abbie. A Deadly Question. The Atlantic. The Atlantic, 19 November 2016. Web. 7 January 2017. Von Drehle, David. The Death of the Death Penalty. Time. Time, 8 June 2015. Web. 7 January 2017.

Atmosphere of Terror and Suspense in Gothic Literature Essay -- essays

1764 saw the birth of Gothic literature with the novel 'The Castle of Otranto', written by Horace Walpole. Although, this novel was based on some much earlier literature it set the standard for all the gothic novels that followed. The 18th century was a time when political power was in the hands of a few rich men. Women did not have the vote, let alone any legal rights. The majority of the population lived in poverty. However things were changing ? the Church was no longer as powerful and the social structure was being questioned. For example, in 1789 the French monarchy was overthrown by the masses starting the French revolution. People were no longer so willing to accept their ?lot in life?. It was in this background that the genre of Gothic literature was first written. It was called gothic because it placed emphasis on emotions such as awe, terror, insignificance and vulnerability. Gothic novels were fascinated with the grotesque, horrible and supernatural. They were a reaction against realistic literature of the 18th century. Some saw it as a sub-genre of romantics but others argued it was a genre in its own right. Whatever its genre, gothic novels were typically characterized by their romanticism, melodrama and dark foreboding settings. They were critical of the society of the day and fiercely anti- catholic, disliking the church?s power and brutality. Some of the main gothic writers of the time included Edgar Alan Poe, Charles Dickens, H.G.Wells, Charlotte and Emily Bronte. By the end of the19th century Mary Shelley?s famous novel of Frankenstein had been published and later on Bram Stoker?s Dracula. Of all the stories written in the gothic era, they all contain many of the typical gothic ... ...ation and descriptive language. Also, with The Tell Tale Heart the tension and suspense has great effect, making the reader wanting to read on. The building of suspense through specific language and literary devices is so firm and efficient that ?The Tell-Tale Heart? has become one of the most famous Gothic short stories in English literature. Poe?s choice of words is known to be precise and concise, and so is his writing style: no devices are used without having certain effects. The Cask of Amontillado is the least representative of the genre because it does not contain so many gothic features and the narrator has a reason for killing: revenge. I believe gothic literature has remained so popular because people like to be thrilled by horror and ghost stories and the central themes never age. The reader can empathise with the story without having to believe it.

The Etiology and Treatment of Parkinson Disease Essay -- Health Aging

Parkinson Disease There exists a group of people who live the final years of their lives in glass boxes. They are perfectly capable of seeing outside, but incapable of reaching out to the world around them. Their emotions can not be shown through facial expression, and as their condition continues, speech also becomes difficult or even impossible. These people are men and women of all races and geographical areas, constituting one percent of the world’s population over 50 years old. Parkinson disease is their affliction. Although Parkinsonism has been around almost as long as recorded history, there is yet to be found a cause or a cure. Medications tame the symptoms and prolong life, but are incapable of reversing the disease progression.. Diagnosis relies exclusively upon clinical signs and symptoms, because almost all laboratory and radiography tests are normal in the Parkinson patient. For this reason early diagnosis is very difficult. The fact that early signs of Parkinsonism can easily be overlooked as normal aging, further complicates diagnosis. Therefore, primary care physicians of the middle-aged and elderly population must be extremely sensitive to patients’ outward appearance and changes in movement ability. Most signs and symptoms of Parkinson disease correspond to one of three motor deficiencies: bradykinesia, akinesia, tremor, and rigidity. The first two qualities are usually present before tremor, but often attributed to aging by the patient and even the physician, and thus the disease is rarely diagnosed until tremor becomes evident much later. An average of 80% of the nigrostriatal neurons may have already degenerated by the time Parkinsonism is diagnosed, which complicates treatment (Fitzgerald, 130). Bra... ...ed. Bailliere Tindall. London: 1985. Kandel, E. R., J. H. Schwarz, and T. M. Jessel. Principles of Neural Science. 3rd ed. Elsevier. New York: 1991. Korczyn, A. D. "Autonomic Nervous System Disturbances in Parkinson’s Disease." Advances in Neurology. Vol. 53, 1990, Pp., 463-468. Langston, J. W. "Current Theories on the Cause of Parkinson’s Disease. " Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry. 1989, suppl. ,pp. 13-i7. Lees, AJ. "The On-Off Phenomenon." Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry. 1989, suppl. ,pp. 29-37. Lieberman, A., "Emerging Perspectives in Parkinson’s Disease." Neurology. April 1992. suppl 4.. Pp. 5-7. Rowland, L. P., ed. Merritt’s Textbook of Neurology. 7th ed. Lea and Febiger. Philadelphia: 1984. Walton, Sir John. Brain’s Diseases of the Nervous System. 9th ed. Oxford University Press. Oxford: 1985. The Etiology and Treatment of Parkinson Disease Essay -- Health Aging Parkinson Disease There exists a group of people who live the final years of their lives in glass boxes. They are perfectly capable of seeing outside, but incapable of reaching out to the world around them. Their emotions can not be shown through facial expression, and as their condition continues, speech also becomes difficult or even impossible. These people are men and women of all races and geographical areas, constituting one percent of the world’s population over 50 years old. Parkinson disease is their affliction. Although Parkinsonism has been around almost as long as recorded history, there is yet to be found a cause or a cure. Medications tame the symptoms and prolong life, but are incapable of reversing the disease progression.. Diagnosis relies exclusively upon clinical signs and symptoms, because almost all laboratory and radiography tests are normal in the Parkinson patient. For this reason early diagnosis is very difficult. The fact that early signs of Parkinsonism can easily be overlooked as normal aging, further complicates diagnosis. Therefore, primary care physicians of the middle-aged and elderly population must be extremely sensitive to patients’ outward appearance and changes in movement ability. Most signs and symptoms of Parkinson disease correspond to one of three motor deficiencies: bradykinesia, akinesia, tremor, and rigidity. The first two qualities are usually present before tremor, but often attributed to aging by the patient and even the physician, and thus the disease is rarely diagnosed until tremor becomes evident much later. An average of 80% of the nigrostriatal neurons may have already degenerated by the time Parkinsonism is diagnosed, which complicates treatment (Fitzgerald, 130). Bra... ...ed. Bailliere Tindall. London: 1985. Kandel, E. R., J. H. Schwarz, and T. M. Jessel. Principles of Neural Science. 3rd ed. Elsevier. New York: 1991. Korczyn, A. D. "Autonomic Nervous System Disturbances in Parkinson’s Disease." Advances in Neurology. Vol. 53, 1990, Pp., 463-468. Langston, J. W. "Current Theories on the Cause of Parkinson’s Disease. " Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry. 1989, suppl. ,pp. 13-i7. Lees, AJ. "The On-Off Phenomenon." Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry. 1989, suppl. ,pp. 29-37. Lieberman, A., "Emerging Perspectives in Parkinson’s Disease." Neurology. April 1992. suppl 4.. Pp. 5-7. Rowland, L. P., ed. Merritt’s Textbook of Neurology. 7th ed. Lea and Febiger. Philadelphia: 1984. Walton, Sir John. Brain’s Diseases of the Nervous System. 9th ed. Oxford University Press. Oxford: 1985.

Behaviourist Thoery Essay

E.L.Thorndike(1874-1949) was the chief exponent of th theory of connectionism or trial and error. He was an American Psychologist who conducted Stimulus – Response(S-R) theory experiment with the help of animals. Thorndike was the first to study the subject of learning systematically using standardized procedure and apparatus. All learning, according to Thorndike is the formation of bonds or connections between Stimulus- Response. The Puzzle Box Experiment Thorndike’s Experiment on cat in the puzzle is widely known and often quoted in psychology of learning. The experimental set up was very simple. A hungry cat was confined in a puzzle box and outside the box a dish of food was kept. The cat, in the box had to pull a string to come out of the box. The cat in the box made several random movement of jumping, dashing and running to get out of the box. The cat atlast succeeded in pulling the string. The door of the puzzle box opened, the cat came out and ate the food. He promtly put the cat to next trial. The cat again gave a lot of frantic behaviour but it soon succeeded in pulling the string. It repeated for several time, Thorndike noticed as the repetition increases the error also reduced i.e., Thorndike’s cat showed slow, gradual and continous improvement in performance over successive trials. He concluded that learning of cat in the puzzle box can be explained in term of formation of direct connectionism between stimulus and response. Features of Trial and Error Learning 1. Learning by trial and error is gradual process. 2. For learning to occur, the learner must be definitely motivated. 3. The learner makes random and variable response. 4. Some responses do lead to the goal (annoying response) 5. Some responses lead to the goal. (satisfying responses) 6. With the increase in number of trials the annoying responses will tend to be eliminated and the satisfying responses will be strengthened and repeated. 7. The time taken to perform the task (to repeat the satisfying response) decreases with successive trials. The experiment sum up the following in the process of learning: 1. Drive : In the present experiment, drive was hunger and was intensified with the sight of food. (motivation) 2. Goal : To get the food by getting out of the box.  3. Block: The cat was confined in the box with a closed door. 4. Random Movement: The cat, persistently, tried to get out of the box. 5. Chance of Success: As a result of this striving and random movement the cat, by chance, succeeded in opening the door. 6. Selection (of proper moevement) : Gradually the cat recognised the correct manipulation of latch. 7. Fixation: At last, the cat learned the proper way of opening the door by eliminating all the incorrect responses and fixing the only right responses. Through the experiment, Thorndike explains that the learning is nothing but the stamping in of correct responses and stamping out of incorrect responses through trial and error. Thorndike’s Laws of Learning i) Law of Readiness : The law states â€Å"When any conduction unit is ready to conduct, for it do so is satisfying. When a conduction unit is not ready to conduct. for it to conduct is annoying. When any conduction is ready to conduct, for it not to do so is annoying.† ii) Law of Effect: The law states â€Å"When a modifiable connection between a stimulus and response is made and is accompanied or followed by a satisfying state of affairs the strength of connection is increased. When a connection between stimulus and response is made and accompanied or followed by an annoying state of affairs , it strength decreases. iii) Law of Execise: The law states â€Å"Any response to a situation will, other things being equal, be more strongly connected with the situation in proportion to the number of times it has been connected with that situation and to the average vigour and duration of the connection.† The law has two sub parts: a) Law of Use and b) Law of Disuse a) Law of Use states that â€Å"When a modifiable connection is made between a situation and response that connection strength is increased if it is practised.† b) Law of Disuse states that â€Å"When a modifiable connection is not made between a situation and response, during a length of time, that connection’s strength is decreased.† This means, any act that is not practised for sometime gradually decays. Educational Implication 1. Thorndike’s theory emphasize the importance of motivation in learning. So learning should be made purposeful and goal directed. 2. It stresses the importance of mental readiness, meaningful practise and incentive in learning process. 3. The law of readiness implies that the teacher should prepare the minds of the students to be ready to accept the knowledge, skills and aptitudes before teaching the topic. 4. More and more opportunities should be given to the learners to use and repeat the knowledge they get in the classroom for effectiveness and longer retention. 5. To maintain learned connection for longer period, review of learned material is necessary. 6. The law of effect has called atention to the importance of motivation and reinforcement in learning. 7. In order to benefit from the mechanism of association in the learning process what is being taught at one situation should be linked with the past experience of the learner.

Assignment 2- Database Modeling and Normalization

Assignment 2- Database Modeling and Normalization Dr. Amir Afzal Strayer University- CIS 515 August 7, 2012 Abstract Selling high end electronics is big business and being a commissioned employee in that field if your sales are up means big money. Prices for electronics range from the low hundreds into the thousands. It really depends on the person style, specifications they are looking for, trust in the brand, and the depth of their pockets, how much a person is willing to spend for example on a that high definition led plasma television that is 52 inches.No matter the cost, businesses want to keep a track of the sales of their employees and how much they are getting paid. In this case a high-end electronics store wants to streamline data processing to enable them to help determine the commissions paid to employees. Assignment 2- Database Modeling and Normalization Streamlining processes allows information to be available to users across the system. In order for the finance departme nt to be able to find the commission paid to employee’s information that maybe held by other departments such as human resources will be needed.Once the database is complete and has all the information such as: employee first and last name, employee ID, yearly salary, commission rate, department, etc, the finance department can then being to generate that information. In this case a query is designed to allow the finance department to determine commissions paid to employees of specific departments. That code will be compared to the code that would show how much total compensation is paid to each employee monthly. Lastly it will be described how Big Data could be used to assist in productivity and forecasting of organizations product and resources.Methods After information is gathered about the employee; most of what was mentioned before, and input into the system a query can be designed to pull that information from the tables. In order to pull information from tables the SEL ECT function is used to determine the information that is needed and the FROM function tells from what tables to pull it (Coronel, Morris & Rob, 2012). The coding that was used to find information on commissions paid to employees was: SELECT Employee. * FROM Employee, Invoice WHERE (DepartmentID =2);The asterisk next to employees indicates that all the information under the employee table was used to generate the search. In this query information was pulled from the employee and invoice tables. The WHERE function more specifically states the department which can be changed and it would generate new information. The query currently only shows employee commission information for employees who work in department two (see attachment). If the finance department wanted to find the total compensation paid to each employee in the same month as the first query a slightly different query would be run to generate that information.The first code simply pulled the information and did not include and computation because the finance department only requested to be able to determine as in pull up the record for employee’s commission paid. The second code will include computation which will divide the yearly salary by twelve months then multiples the commission rate by the total amount of product sold and lastly add those two numbers together to get the total compensation for that month. Unfortunately the coding that I am using is not generating a proper result.However, it should look something like this: SELECT Employee. EmpNumber, Employee. EmpFirstName, Employee. EmpLastName, Employee. YrlySalary, Invoice. InvAmount, Invoice. InvDate, Employee. CommissionRate FROM Employee INNER JOIN Invoice ON Employee. EmpNumber = Invoice. EmpNumber WHERE (DepartmentID=2);, it is missing the computation part. Big Data could be used to assist in productivity and forecasting of organizations product and resources because it takes â€Å"large pools of data that can be brought togethe r and analyzed to discern patterns and make better decisions†.It â€Å"enhanc[es] productivity and creat[es] significant value for the world economy by reducing waste and increasing the quality of products and services (Mcguire, 2012). Additionally, Big Data adds â€Å"value by making information transparent†¦ â€Å"store more transactional data in digital form†, and develop the next generation of products and services† (Mcguire, 2012). That last aspect of Big Data allows â€Å"manufacturers are using data obtained from sensors embedded in products to create innovative after-sales service offerings such as proactive maintenance to avoid failures in new products (Mcguire, 2012).References Coronel, C. , Morris, S. , & Rob, P. (2012). Database systems. (10th ed. ). Independence, KY: Cengage. Mcguire, T. (2012, July). Why big data is the new competitive advantage. Retrieved from http://www. iveybusinessjournal. com/topics/strategy/why-big-data-is-the-new-compe titive-advantage Appendix A Appendix B | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |